The Effect of Violent Video Games on Aggression

I have always personally felt that there was no link between video games and violence. I even watched the Penn and Teller: Bullsh!t episode (which can be found here) and agreed with them. Yet what exactly does the research say?

I conducted a brief search on ScienceDirect and found the following:

Gentile, Lynch, Linder and Walsh (2004) assessed the link between video games and violence on 607 8th and 9th grade students. They found that those exposed to more violence were more likely to get into arguments with teachers, be involved in fights, and have lower grades at school. The article appeared in a special edition of the Journal of Adolescence published in 2004 which focused on violent video games. Many other articles also claimed to find a link between violent video games and aggression (see Journal of Adolescence).

However, Ferguson, San Miguel, Garza and Jerabeck (2012) state that in 2011 the US Supreme Court found that previous research had been flawed. Furthermore, they conducted a longitudinal study over 3 years with 165 participants. They found that there was no link between violent video games and aggression. In contrast, they maintain that depression, antisocial personality traits, family violence and peer influence were the most likely predictors of violence. Simiarly, Valadez and Ferguson (2012) also found there was no relationship between violence or depression and video games or the length of time spent playing them.

Although recent evidence suggests that there may not be a link between video games and observed violent behaviour, Engelhardt, Bartholow, Kerr and Bushman (2011) suggest that video games may result in neuronal desensitisation. Engelhardt et al (2011) observed the brain activity of participants whilst they played violent or non-violent video games then viewed violent or non-violent photos. They found that:

Participants low in previous exposure to video game violence who played a violent (relative to a nonviolent) game showed a reduction in the P3 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP) to violent images (indicating physiological desensitization), and this brain response mediated the effect of video game content on subsequent aggressive behavior.

Clearly there needs to be further research assessing the relationship between brain activity and actual observed violent behaviour.


References:

Engelhardt C.R., Bartholow B.D., Kerr G.T. & Bushman B.J. (2011). This is your brain on violent video games: Neural desensitization to violence predicts increased aggression following violent video game exposure, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47 (5) 1033-1036. DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.027
 
Ferguson C.J., San Miguel C., Garza A. & Jerabeck J.M. (2012). A longitudinal test of video game violence influences on dating and aggression: A 3-year longitudinal study of adolescents, Journal of Psychiatric Research, 46 (2) 141-146. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.10.014

Gentile D.A., Lynch P.J., Linder J.R. & Walsh D.A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance, Journal of Adolescence, 27 (1) 5-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.10.002  

Valadez J.J. & Ferguson C.J. (2012). Just a game after all: Violent video game exposure and time spent playing effects on hostile feelings, depression, and visuospatial cognition, Computers in Human Behavior, 28 (2) 608-616. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.006

Phonics - Should It Be Taught In UK Schools?

In a recent BBC News article reported that Andrew Davis, a researcher at Durham University, suggests that synethic phonics sessions may not be suitable for able readers in schools.

Davis states:

To subject either the fully fledged readers, or those who are well on their way, to a rigid diet of intensive phonics is an affront to their emerging identities as persons. To require this of students who have already gained some maturity in the rich and nourishing human activity of reading is almost a form of abuse.

Davis' comments have started an interesting debate amongst educational professionals, parents and the public. Yet what of phonics in general? Should they continue to be taught in UK schools?

NATE (National Association for the Teachers of English) have also voiced concerns over a possible over-emphasis of phonics teaching in schools.

Wyse and Goswami (2008) argue that a recent paper set out by the government provided no empirical data that children who are taught synthetic phonics become effective readers. They also maintain that systematic phonics instruction may be more effective. However Johnston, McGeown and Watson (2012) compared two groups of children, aged 10, who were taught either analytic or synthetic phonics. They found that the group who were taught synthetic phonics exhibited better reading, spelling and reading comprehension. As well as this, they also found that synthetic phonics led to no impairment of reading irregular words.

The debate between synthetic and analytic phonics, as well as the debate of teaching phonics in schools, is nothing new. Furthermore, more research is needed in this fascinating area of reading development.

Goswami (2005) suggests it is important to step back from the synethic and analytic phonics argument and realise that most children will become effective readers of their own language in time. He also suggests that two important factors to consider when assessing children's phonic acquisition is the phonological complexity of the spoken language and the written complexity of the written language.

References:

Goswami U. (2005). Synthetic Phonics and Learning to Read: A Cross‐language Perspective, Educational Psychology in Practice, 21 (4) 273-282. DOI: 10.1080/02667360500344823

Johnston R.S., McGeown S. & Watson J.E. (2012). Long-term effects of synthetic versus analytic phonics teaching on the reading and spelling ability of 10 year old boys and girls, Reading and Writing, 25 (6) 1365-1384. DOI: 10.1007/s11145-011-9323-x

Wyse D. & Goswami U. (2008). Synthetic phonics and the teaching of reading, British Educational Research Journal, 34 (6) 691-710. DOI: 10.1080/01411920802268912

Paternal Depression - Likelihood and Effect on Parenting Behaviour

Post-natal depression has, for a long time, been associated with mothers. It may be a surprise therefore to discover that fathers too can suffer from post-natal depression. In fact Musser, Ahmed, Foli and Coddington (2013) argue that "Paternal postpartum depression (PPD) is a clinically significant problem for families that is currently underscreened, underdiagnosed, and undertreated". The cause of PPD still remains a focus on psychological research. Roubinov, Leucken, Crnic and Gonzales (2014) state that paternal depression may be caused by factors such as unemployment status, fewer biological children and poor marital relationship quality at 15 weeks. Musser et al (2013) state that the negative effects of PPD influence relationships, infant bonding, and child development. Research has begun to explore these issues in greater detail.

Ramchandani, Stein, Evans and O'Connor (2005) have found that paternal depression can have a signiciant impact on child behaviour. Ramchandani et al (2005) conducted a large population study, using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, assessing responses of 8431 fathers. They found an association between paternal postnatal depression and behavioural issues of children at 3.5 years. Wilson and Durbin (2010) explain that this may occur specifically because of negative parenting style, caused by depression, on child temperament. They conducted a meta-analytic review of around 28 published and unpublished studies and found that depressed fathers tended to display greater negative parenting behaviour.

William Courtney PhD, in an interview with Kathy Morelli at Science and Sensibility, suggests the following to help prevent PPD:

•  Attending hospital-sponsored parenting classes, particularly if the father-to-be is anxious about becoming a dad.
•  Devising strategies for shared childcare responsibilities. The father, for example, may handle a nighttime feeding by using formula or pumped breast milk.
•  Hiring domestic help if it’s affordable or asking a family member to baby-sit once a week.
• Understanding that sex lives change with the birth and may not return to normal for a year or more.
• Joining a support group for new fathers or reading about depression on websites such as SadDaddy.com, which includes a screening test for men.

 References:

Musser AK, Ahmed AH, Foli KJ, & Coddington JA (2013). Paternal postpartum depression: what health care providers should know. Journal of pediatric health care : official publication of National Association of Pediatric Nurse Associates & Practitioners, 27 (6), 479-85 PMID: 23182851


Roubinov DS, Luecken LJ, Crnic KA, & Gonzales NA (2014). Postnatal depression in Mexican American fathers: demographic, cultural, and familial predictors. Journal of affective disorders, 152-154, 360-8 PMID: 24148791



Ramchandani P, Stein A, Evans J, O'Connor TG, & ALSPAC study team (2005). Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: a prospective population study. Lancet, 365 (9478), 2201-5 PMID: 15978928

Prader-Willi Syndrome: A Primer for Teachers

Prader-Willi syndrome is a genetic disorder. Specifically it is caused by the lack of expression of genes at 15q11–q13 (Haig and Wharton 2003). It was first noted in 1956 by Prader, Willi, Labhart, Ziegler and Fanconi.

The characteristics of Prader-Willi syndrome include hypotonia, obesity, hypogonadism, short stature, small hands and feet, mental deficiency and a characteristic face (Butler 2005).

The PWSA (UK) states that:

Babies with PWS are very floppy at birth, and the ability to suck is weak or absent. Tube-feeding may be required for the first few days or weeks of life; breast-feeding is rarely initially successful. Babies show little interest in feeding during the first few months of their lives, have a very weak cry, and sleep for most of the time during the early weeks. Male babies may have noticeably underdeveloped genital organs. Female babies may also have underdeveloped genitalia, but this is much harder to detect. Developmental milestones such as sitting, standing, walking and talking are generally delayed, but most children with PWS are able to attain all these abilities by the time they are about 5 years old. Infants with PWS are very lovable and placid, and seem to draw admiration wherever they go.

Some time between the ages of one and four years, children with PWS begin to show a heightened interest in food and in severe cases develop what appears to be an insatiable appetite, so that they will try to obtain food by any means possible. The degree to which this occurs varies considerably between individuals, but there is always a preoccupation with food in play and talk. This can be helped by good management, dietary control and educating the child about his or her diet. However, if energy intake has not been carefully monitored, weight gain is rapid; hence, a lower calorie diet (energy controlled regime) is essential throughout the person's life. An appropriate exercise programme helps to keep weight levels down and also improves muscle strength. If weight is not controlled, fat accumulates in a characteristic way on the buttocks, stomach, lower trunk and thighs. Children with PWS are generally placid and friendly, but may begin to exhibit stubborn or obsessive behaviour, and outbursts of temper if they cannot get their own way or are denied access to food.

The video posted below, developed by the PWSA (USA), gives some useful tips for teachers:

References:

Butler, M. (1990). Prader-Willi syndrome: Current understanding of cause and diagnosis American Journal of Medical Genetics, 35 (3), 319-332 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.1320350306



Haig D, & Wharton R (2003). Prader-Willi syndrome and the evolution of human childhood. American journal of human biology : the official journal of the Human Biology Council, 15 (3), 320-9 PMID: 12704708

What Became of John Watson?

 

Little Albert is possibly one of the most famous children in Psychology and is studied by almost all Psychology students.

Hall writes:

In the winter of 1919/20, Watson and his graduate assistant, Rosalie Alberta Rayner, attempted to condition a baby boy, Albert B., to fear a white laboratory rat. They later reported that the child’s fear generalised to other furry objects.

 This, in essence, is the basics of the story of Little Albert. The rest is history.

In time the story of what happened to Albert became myth. Recently researchers discovered what really happened to Little Albert (see Hall 2011). Yet people rarely ever ask what happened to John Watson, the man behind the Little Albert experiments.

Harzem (2001) writes that following an affair with Rayner, whom he later married, Watson left behind academia to pursue a successful career in advertising. However Rayner died in 1935 and Watson never recovered from his loss and slipped into depression. He passed away in 1958.

References:


Harzem, P. (2001). Watson, John Broadus (1878–1958) International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 16389-16391 DOI: 10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00347-8

The Stages of Children's Artistic Development

I doubt many people can remember the first time they held a crayon or drew their first picture. Yet this pivotal moment in our childhood is just the beginning of what researchers have found is a series of developmental stages. However, there are differing interpretations of when specific stages occur, how many stages there are, and what occurs within each stage.

Possibly the most significant figure in the research of children's artistic development was Viktor Lowenfeld. Brutger, at the University of Minnesota, provides an outline of Lowenfeld's stages:

1. Scribble (2 to 4 years)
According to Lowenfield the scribble stage is made up of four sub stages. These are:

• Disordered
• Longitudinal
• Circular
• Naming

2. Preschematic (4 to 6 years)
At this stage circular images accompanied by lines such as faces or animals become noticeable. Additionally the child's schema is developed. Children also tend to draw things that matter most to them, such as parents, pets and family members. There appears to be a limited awareness of space, with objects being placed haphazardly throughout the picture.

3. Schematic (7 to 9 years)
The Schematic stage is defined by an improved awareness of space. Colours are used as they appear in the real world such as a blue sky or green apple.

4. Dawning Realism (9 to 11 years)
Dawning Realism, also known as the Gang Age, is characterised by a period of self-awareness and self-criticism. Realism is attempted but the child may discover they lack the ability to draw things as they actually are. Human characters tend to look stiff.

5. Pseudorealistic Stage (11 to 13 years)
The final stage, called the Pseudorealistic Stage, is marked by the child's focus on the final product rather than the experience of drawing.

Individuals at this stage may fall into two different types:

• Visual types - Feel as if they are spectators looking at their work from outside
• Nonvisual types - Feel involved in their work because it relates to them on a personal level.

Eventually Lowenfeld (1947) was succeeded by various other individuals who all proposed similar stages. A list of which can be found here. As well as this a recent cross-cultural study has found that children may differ as they progress through these stages. Alter-Muri and Vazzano (2014) found that boys drew vehicles and weapons more often than girls. They also found that boys were less likely to use colour whereas girls used warm and cool colours equally. Furthermore they also found variation amongst children within the same sub-groups. Alter-Muri and Vazzano (2014) state that "Lowenfeld's art development stages are applicable to age but are not universal,".

Despite criticism of Lowenfeld's stages, it is evident that children progress through some kind of artistic development composed of stages. The exact timing of these stages varies according to different theories and research. It could be suggested that because of individual differences, children will obviously differ in their progress and artistic ability. The study of children and artistic ability has proven fruitful, despite disagreements over the developmental stages, with various therapies and interventions designed around the child drawing. Psychological research will continue to provide further information, not only on artistic development, but on children's wellbeing and happiness through the use of the pencil, crayon, and paintbrush for years to come.

References:

Alter-Muri, S.B. & Vazzano, S. (2014). Gender Typicality in Children's Art Development: A Cross-Cultural Study The Arts in Psychotherapy : http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2014.01.003



Lowenfeld, V. 1947. Creative and Mental Growth. New York: MacMillan Co.

A Class Divided

In 1968 Jane Elliot, an elementary teacher in the USA, decided to teach her children about discrimination by splitting the class according to eye colour. Elliot initially told her pupils that children with blue eyes were the superior group. Despite initial disbelief, there was eventually a significant a difference in the behaviour of both groups as blue-eyed children sought to take advantage of their status whilst brown-eyed children were left to feel that they were valued less than their blue-eyed peers. The next day Elliot reversed the experiment stating that brown-eyed children were superior and that blue-eyed children were not. Similar behaviour occurred although reversed.

Elliot's experiment with her pupils has been a source of study and interest for the general public, psychology students, and academics for decades since. The following video is a follow-up documentary of the original study featuring Elliot and her pupils.

A Class Divided

Bullying At School: Does It Affect Academic Achievement?

Many individuals can recall being bullied at some point whilst at school. The essential components of bullying tend to be intention to harm, harmful outcome, direct or indirect acts, repetition and unequal power. Bullying can also take many forms such as direct physical action, indirect action, verbal bullying, cyber bullying, social bullying, sexual bullying, as well as religious or racial bullying (James 2010). The occurrence of bullying can be as high as 27% (Stassen Berger 2007; cited in James 2010). However James (2010) argues this can vary greatly. BullyingUK states that some signs that victims display can include lack of sleep, changes in eating habits, anxiety about school and change in behaviour.

I decided to conduct a brief search on databases such as ScienceDirect and WileyOnline for research focusing on the relationship between victimisation and academic achievement.

The following is a summary of some of the research articles I found:

• Ponzo (2013) found that being a victim of bullying has a significant impact on academic performance with greater significant impact occurring with 13 year olds than 9 year olds.
  
• Kowalski and Limber (2013) assessed 931 students and also found that academic performance decreased along with psychological and physical health. They also state that there can be an overlap between traditional and cyberbullying.
  
• Strom, Thoresen, Wentzel-Larsen and Dyb (2013) assessed academic achievement amongst adolescents exposed to violence, sexual abuse and bullying. They also found that there was a relationship between bullying and lower grades amongst victims. Additionally they also state that many students within schools that have high levels of bullying tend to have poorer grades.
  
• Holt, Finkelhor and Kaufman Kantor (2007) found that, from studying 689 fifth grade students, children could be placed into three broad profiles: those with minimal victimisation, those victimised by their peers, and those with multiple victimisations. They found that those with multiple victimisations tend to suffer not only with psychological distress but also poorer grades than their peers.

It is evident that, even from a few studies, that bullying significantly affects academic achievement.

BullyingUK provides fantastic advice, support and information. If you are a parent or teacher concerned about bullying then please do visit their website.

References:


Holt MK, Finkelhor D, & Kantor GK (2007). Multiple victimization experiences of urban elementary school students: associations with psychosocial functioning and academic performance. Child abuse & neglect, 31 (5), 503-15 PMID: 17537507



James, A. (2010). School Bullying [pdf] NSPCC. Available at: <http://www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/research/briefings/school_bullying_pdf_wdf73502.pdf> [Accessed 19 January 2014].


Kowalski RM, & Limber SP (2013). Psychological, physical, and academic correlates of cyberbullying and traditional bullying. The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 53 (1 Suppl) PMID: 23790195



Ponzo, M. (2013). Does bullying reduce educational achievement? An evaluation using matching estimators Journal of Policy Modeling, 35 (6), 1057-1078 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpolmod.2013.06.002



Strøm IF, Thoresen S, Wentzel-Larsen T, & Dyb G (2013). Violence, bullying and academic achievement: a study of 15-year-old adolescents and their school environment. Child abuse & neglect, 37 (4), 243-51 PMID: 23298822

TEACCH Intervention: A Brief Review of Various Studies

Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children (TEACCH) is a service, training, and research program for individuals of all ages and skill levels with autism spectrum disorders. The TEACCH Program was developed as a reaction against Freudian theories frequently provided to families with autistic children (Schopler 1998).

The TEACCH website states:

Structured TEACCHing is based on understanding the learning characteristics of individuals with autism and the use of visual supports to promote meaning and independence. TEACCH services are supported by empirical research, enriched by extensive clinical expertise, and notable for its flexible and individualized support of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and their families.

Abou-Hatab, Zahran and Abbas (2013) state that, concerning pre-school age autistic children, the TEACCH intervention resulted in a decrease of behaviour problems. Five autistic children between the ages of 2-6, selected according to the DSM IV criteria for autism, were assessed by their mothers and teachers for behavioural problems. Subsequently, intervention was conducted at school and home. They found that there was statistical significance regarding the pre and post follow-up ratings from the mothers and teachers. Hume, Boyd, McBee, Coman, Gutierrez, Shaw, Sperry, Alessandri and Odom (2011) also found that after observing pre-school autistic children four times over one year, TEACCH was found to be a reliable and valid method of implementation.

In contrast to these findings Virues-Ortega, Julio and Pastor-Barriuso (2013) found that TEACCH has limited impact. Assessing thirteen studies through a meta-analysis, they found that TEACCH has limited impact on perceptual, motor, verbal and cognitive skills as well as a small influence on communication, ADL and motor functioning. However, they state that TEACCH had some influence on social and maladaptive behaviour.

As with many intervention programmes, it is only through continuous research and evaluation that such programmes can be improved in order to be more effective for who gain from them.

References:


M.F. Abou-Hatab, M.H. Zahran and Z.M. Abbas (2013). Autistic preschoolers: a teacch based model for early behavioral intervention in school setting European Psychiatry, 8 (1)



Hume K., Boyd B.,, McBee M., Comanc D., Gutierrezc A., Shaw E., Sperry L.,, Alessandri M. and, & Odoma s. (2011). Assessing implementation of comprehensive treatment models for young children with ASD: Reliability and validity of two measures Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5 (4), 1430-1440 DOI: http://dx..org/10.1016/j.rasd.2011.02.002


Schopler, E. (1998). Prevention and Management of Behavior Problems: The TEACCH Approach Behavior and Cognitive Therapy Today DOI: http://dx..org/10.1016/B978-008043437-7/50021-1



Virues-Ortegaa J., Juliob F.M. and Pastor-Barriuso R. (2013). The TEACCH program for children and adults with autism: A meta-analysis of intervention studies Clinical Psychology Review, 33 (8), 940-953 DOI: http://dx..org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.07.005
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